Development and validation of the AI dependence scale for Chinese undergraduates and a preliminary exploration

Introduction With the proliferation of generative artificial intelligence (AI) in higher education, student overreliance has become a growing concern, potentially undermining critical thinking and autonomous learning. To address the lack of a comprehensive measurement tool, this study developed and validated the AI Dependence Scale (AIDep-22), a new instrument designed to assess this phenomenon across four hypothesized dimensions: emotional dependence, functional dependence, cognitive dependence, and loss of control. Methods The scale was constructed following a rigorous two-stage process, beginning with item generation and refinement through expert reviews and cognitive interviews, followed by psychometric evaluation with two independent samples of Chinese university students (N = 400 each). Results An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) supported the four-factor structure, which was subsequently confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the second sample. The final 22-item scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.87), strong convergent and discriminant validity, and robust criterion-related validity. Preliminary analyses also identified key demographic risk factors, revealing that male students, upper-year students, those in applied majors, and more frequent AI users reported significantly higher dependence. Discussion This study contributes a reliable and valid diagnostic tool that enables educators and researchers to identify and support students at risk, and to design targeted interventions that promote a more balanced human-AI relationship in higher education.