Assessing the Unfulfilled Promises of Agroforestry and Conservation Agriculture as Climate-Smart Solutions for Food Security in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe

This study assessed the unfulfilled promises of agroforestry (AF) and conservation agriculture (CA) as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. Despite their potential for carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and enhanced food security, empirical evidence of their effectiveness remains fragmented, particularly at larger scales. The research aimed to evaluate the ecological functions of AF and CA, their impact on smallholder farming systems, and the socio-economic barriers to their adoption. Key objectives include understanding their contributions to carbon sequestration, soil health, and climate resilience, as well as identifying strategies to enhance their scalability and effectiveness. The study employed a systematic literature review, focusing on peer-reviewed articles published between 2021 and 2024. Boolean operators were used to search databases like Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus. Inclusion criteria prioritised studies on AF and CA as CSA practices, conducted in the specified countries, and available in English. The review process involved title and abstract screening, full-text analysis, and final selection based on relevance and data quality. Findings revealed that AF and CA show significant potential for improving environmental sustainability and farm productivity, particularly in enhancing soil fertility and carbon sequestration. However, their adoption is hindered by financial constraints, limited access to credit, and socio-economic disparities among farmers. Mixed results were observed in crop yield improvements, with some regions reporting positive outcomes while others showed negligible benefits. The study highlights the need for tailored interventions, supportive policies, and institutional capacity-building to overcome these barriers. In conclusion, AF and CA can contribute to climate resilience and food security, but their success depends on integrating innovative techniques with organic matter management and leveraging social structures for mobilisation. Recommendations include scaling up these practices through commercialisation, resource availability, and knowledge dissemination. Future research should focus on refining models for small land sizes, addressing labour constraints, and employing participatory approaches to ensure sustainable adoption and effectiveness in sub-Saharan Africa